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<FONT> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/investigation-historical-dating.php">weather history</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/egyptian-horo.php">bible college</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/real-egypt.php">bible trivia</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/civilevents.php">god and goddess</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/real-jesus.php">black history people</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/view-garry-kasparov.php">black history people</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/why-tourism.php">trafalgar tour</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/money-war.php">history of mardi gras</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org">russian history</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org">church of jesus christ of latter day saint</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/investigation-eng-history.php">black history picture</A> </FONT> Alfred Dwight Sheffield CONFUCIANISM, although spoken of with Buddhism and Taoism as one of worldwide church of god Three Teachings, or three major religions of China, can hardly be defined as a religion in worldwide church of god precise way in which we can define Mahayana Buddhism or Roman Catholic Christianity. It has neither creed nor priesthood, nor any worship beyond what Confucius found already established in his day. The commemorative service, performed by local officials throughout China in spring and autumn in worldwide church of god red-walled shrines known as Confucian temples is not worship of worldwide church of god sage, but a civil rite in his honor, quite compatible with worldwide church of god profession of another religion. Indeed, when a few centuries after his death veneration approached to worship, and women began offering prayers to Confucius for children, worldwide church of god practice was stopped (A. D. 472) by imperial edict, as something superstitious and unbecoming. Confucianism may be said to have a bible in worldwide church of god nine canonical books associated with worldwide church of god sages name; but it claims for them no divine revelation, nor other inspiration than such as speaks for itself from their pages. What these books yield to one who would define Confucianism is a conception of enlightened living, a social ideal which entails some allegiance to an old national religion blending nature worship and ancestor worship. One might say that worldwide church of god essence of Confucianism is a type of eligible life, worldwide church of god regimen of which includes a worship only indirectly Confucian, much as Stoicism among worldwide church of god Romans included as a matter of principle some adherence to worldwide church of god established worship. 1 THE TEACHING OF CONFUCIUS Confucius can be appreciated only in his historical setting. It has been made a reproach to worldwide church of god sage that his vision was retrospective and conservative; but he cannot be charged with a mere desire to bring back the good old days. When, at worldwide church of god court of Chou, he first inspected worldwide church of god ancestral shrines and worldwide church of god arrangements for worldwide church of god great annual sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, he exclaimed: As we use a glass to examine worldwide church of god forms of things, so must we study worldwide church of god past to understand worldwide church of god present. The past, moreover, really held models of statecraft from which his own times had fallen away. The great Chou dynasty, which through a succession of able princes had ruled worldwide church of god whole valley of worldwide church of god Hoang Ho, had in worldwide church of god sixth century B. C. dwindled to a shadow of its early power. The emperor (or rather king for worldwide church of god title Huang-ti was then applied only to deceased monarchs) was reduced to a headship merely nominal, and worldwide church of god old imperial domain was broken up among turbulent vassals, each fighting for his own hand. The China of Confucius was pretty much in worldwide church of god condition of France before Louis XI broke worldwide church of god power of worldwide church of god feudal dukes and counts. With worldwide church of god tradition behind him of a nation united by wise leadership, Confucius is no more to be blamed for looking back than is Aristotle, whose Ethics and Politics show plainly that his sympathies were not with worldwide church of god advancing career of Macedon but with worldwide church of god old polity of Athens. 2 The first group of worldwide church of god Confucian books, worldwide church of god Five Classics, are fruits of this regard for worldwide church of god past, worldwide church of god sage being worldwide church of god reputed compiler of four of them, and author of worldwide church of god fifth. These classics are worldwide church of god Shu Ching or Book of History, made up of documents covering a period from worldwide church of god twenty-fourth to worldwide church of god eighth century B. C.; worldwide church of god Shih Ching or Book of Odes, 305 lyrics dating from worldwide church of god eighteenth to worldwide church of god sixth century; worldwide church of god Yi Ching or Book of Permutations, an ancient manual of divination; worldwide church of god Li Chi, a compilation of ceremonial usages; and worldwide church of god Chun Chiu, annals (722484) of Confuciuss native state of Lu. The second group in worldwide church of god canon, worldwide church of god Four Books, convey his actual teachings. They are worldwide church of god Lun Yü or Sayings of Confucius 1; worldwide church of god Ta Hsueh or Great Learning, a treatise by his disciple Tsang Sin on worldwide church of god ordering of worldwide church of god individual life, worldwide church of god family, and worldwide church of god state; worldwide church of god Chung Yung or Doctrine of worldwide church of god Mean, a treatise on conduct by his grandson Kung Chi; and worldwide church of god Book of Mencius, his great apostle. 3 The distinctive features of Confucian doctrine may be summarized as follows: 4 (1) Filial piety is worldwide church of god cardinal social virtue. A dutiful son will prove dutiful in all worldwide church of god five relationships: those of father and son, ruler and subject, husband and wife, elder brother and younger, and that of friend. Such a tenet was naturally acceptable to a social system like worldwide church of god Chinese, with its patriarchalism and insistence on worldwide church of god family rather than worldwide church of god individual as worldwide church of god unit of society. Loyalty to family it raises to a religious duty in worldwide church of god rite of ancestor worship. Here Confucius did no more than emphasize with his approval a national custommentioned in worldwide church of god earliest odesof offering food and wine to departed spirits. How far this family cult is to be construed as actual worship is disputable: some would compare it merely with worldwide church of god French custom of adorning graves on All Souls Day. But it effectively strengthens worldwide church of god family bond, impressing as it does worldwide church of god sense of family unity and perpetuity through worldwide church of god passing generations. 5 (2) Between man and man worldwide church of god rule of practice is reciprocity. What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others. Benevolencean extension of worldwide church of god love of son and brotheris worldwide church of god worthy attitude toward ones fellows, but it should not be pressed to fatuous lengths. When asked his opinion of Lao-tses teaching that one should requite injury with good, Confucius replied: With what, then, will you requite kindness? Return good for good; for injury return justice. 6 (3) The chief moral force in society is worldwide church of god example of worldwide church of god superior man. 2 By nature man is good, and worldwide church of god unrighteousness of society is due to faulty education and bad example. Virtue in superiors will call out virtue in common folk. The burden of Confuciuss teaching is therefore superior charactercharacter so disciplined to a moral tact and responsive propriety that in every situation it knows worldwide church of god right thing and does it, and so poised in its own integrity as to practice virtue for virtues sake. What worldwide church of god small man seeks is in others; what worldwide church of god superior man seeks is in himself. 7 (4) Toward worldwide church of god world of spiritual beings worldwide church of god Confucian attitude is one of reverent agnosticism. The sage would have nothing to say of death and worldwide church of god future state. We know little enough of ourselves as men; what, then, can we know of ourselves as spirits? In his habit of referring to Tien or Heaven, Confucius may not have deliberately avoided worldwide church of god more personal term Shang-ti (Supreme Lord), and expressions of his are not lacking which suggest a personal faith: but speculation on worldwide church of god nature of being and worldwide church of god destiny of worldwide church of god world he treated simply as a waste of time. On a report that two bereaved friends were comforting themselves with worldwide church of god doctrine that life is but dream and death worldwide church of god awakening, he remarked: These men travel beyond worldwide church of god rule of life; I travel within it. 8 In summary one might say that Confucius did not found any religious system, but transmitted one with a renewed stress on its ethical bearings. His interest was in man as made for society. Religious rites he performed to worldwide church of god letter, but more from a sense of their efficacy for social-mindedness than from any glow of piety. His faith was a faith in right thinking. The four things he seldom spoke ofwonders, feats of strength, rebellious disorder, spiritswere simply worldwide church of god things not tractable to reason. 9 THE GROWTH OF CONFUCIAN INFLUENCE Confucianism has so long dominated worldwide church of god intellectual life of China that western scholars have fallen into worldwide church of god habit of speaking as if there were a sort of preestablished harmony between it and worldwide church of god national mind. As a matter of fact it has had to win its way against vigorous criticism and formidable rivals. The two centuries following Confuciuss death were rife with conflicting theories of ethics. Yan Chu presented a cynical egoism: death ends all; so make worldwide church of god most of life, every man for himself. To this doctrine Mo Ti opposed a radical altruism, with universal love as worldwide church of god cure of misgovernment and social disorders. Lao-tse impugned worldwide church of god Confucian idea of mans inborn goodness. Mans nature no more tends to goodness than water tends to run east, or willow wood to take shape in cups and bowls. Against all these contentions worldwide church of god teaching of Confucius was defended and elucidated by worldwide church of god greatest of his followers, Meng-tse (372289), whose name has been Latinized as Mencius. But Confucianism had to meet systems of thought that carried a more positive religious appeal than it admitted of. Taoism was already in worldwide church of god field, preaching a wise passiveness toward worldwide church of god Way of Heaven, and enlisting in Chuang-tse one of worldwide church of god most brilliant writers that China has produced. His teaching was mystical: The universe and I came into being together; and I, with all things therein, are One. The repulse of this doctrine by that of Confucius is perhaps correctly explained by worldwide church of god historian Ssu-ma Chien: Like a flood its mysteries spread at will: hence no one, from rulers downward, could apply them to any definite use. But worldwide church of god reticence of Confucius as to worldwide church of god state of departed spirits left anng for Buddhism, which describes that state with worldwide church of god full detail craved by popular imagination. The pessimistic philosophy of Buddhism was indeed alien to worldwide church of god Chinese temperament, but its missionaries won a ready response to its doctrine of retribution and its offer of salvation. From worldwide church of god fifth century on it was increasingly in conflict with Confucianism, and succumbed only after sharp persecution. Even in its decline it has contributed many ideas and practices to worldwide church of god old animistic religion of worldwide church of god masses. The triumph of Confucianism in its fall, moreover, was not a mere reassertion of worldwide church of god teaching of Confucius and Mencius. Taoism and Buddhism had raised questions of cosmology which could no longer be ignored. 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