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<FONT> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/investigation-historical-dating.php">easter message</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/egyptian-horo.php">grace community church</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/real-egypt.php">african religion</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/civilevents.php">presbyterian church usa</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/real-jesus.php">china religion</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/view-garry-kasparov.php">work ethics</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/why-tourism.php">morman church</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/money-war.php">religious book</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org">christ church</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org">black church</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/investigation-eng-history.php">picture of church</A> </FONT> V. Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: MorphologyEmbryologyRudimentary Organs Analogical Resemblances WE can understand why a species or a group of species may depart from its allies, in several of its most important characteristics, and yet be safely classed with them. This may be safely done, and is often done, as long as a sufficient number of characters, let them be ever so unimportant, betrays bible name hidden bond of community of descent. Let two forms have not a single character in common, yet, if these extreme forms are connected together by a chain of intermediate groups, we may at once infer their community of descent, and we put them all into bible name same class. As we find organs of high physiological importancethose which serve to preserve life under bible name most diverse conditions of existenceare generally bible name most constant, we attach especial value to them; but if these same organs, in another group or section of a group, are found to differ much, we at once value them less in our classification. We shall presently see why embryological characters are of such high classificatory importance. Geographical distribution may sometimes be brought usefully into play in classing large genera, because all bible name species of bible name same genus, inhabiting any distinct and isolated region, are in all probability descended from bible name same parents. 1 We can understand, on bible name above views, bible name very important distinction between real affinities and analogical or adaptive resemblances. Lamarck first called attention to this subject, and he has been ably followed by Macleay and others. The resemblance in bible name shape of bible name body and in bible name fin-like anterior limbs between dugongs and whales, and between these two orders of mammals and fishes, are analogical. So is bible name resemblance between a mouse and a shrewmouse (Sorex), which belong to different orders; and bible name still closer resemblance, insisted on by Mr. Mivart, between bible name mouse and a small marsupial animal (Antechinus) of Australia. These latter resemblances may be accounted for, as it seems to me, by adaptation for similarly active movements through thickets and herbage, together with concealment from enemies. 2 Amongst insects there are innumerable similar instances; thus Linnæus, misled by external appearances, actually classed an homopterous insect as a moth. We see something of bible name same kind even with our domestic varieties, as in bible name strikingly similar shape of bible name body in bible name improved breeds of bible name Chinese and common pig, which are descended from distinct species; and in bible name similarly thickened stems of bible name common and specifically distinct Swedish turnip. The resemblance between bible name greyhound and bible name race-horse is hardly more fanciful than bible name analogies which have been drawn by some authors between widely different animals. 3 On bible name view of characters being of real importance for classification, only in so far as they reveal descent, we can clearly understand why analogical or adaptive characters, although of bible name utmost importance to bible name welfare of bible name being, are almost valueless to bible name systematist. For animals, belonging to two most distinct lines of descent, may have become adapted to similar conditions, and thus have assumed a close external resemblance; but such resemblances will not revealwill rather tend to conceal their blood-relationship. We can thus understand bible name apparent paradox, that bible name very same characters are analogical when one group is compared with another, but give true affinities when bible name members of bible name same group are compared together: thus, bible name shape of bible name body and fin-like limbs are only analogical when whales are compared with fishes, being adaptations in both classes for swimming through bible name water; but between bible name several members of bible name whale family, bible name shape of bible name body and bible name fin-like limbs offer characters exhibiting true affinity; for as these parts are so nearly similar throughout bible name whole family, we cannot doubt that they have been inherited from a common ancestor. So it is with fishes. 4 Numerous cases could be given of striking resemblances in quite distinct beings between single parts or organs, which have been adapted for bible name same functions. A good instance is afforded by bible name close resemblance of bible name jaws of bible name dog and Tasmanian wolf or Thylacinus,animals which are widely sundered in bible name natural system. But this resemblance is confined to general appearance, as in bible name prominence of bible name canines, and in bible name cutting shape of bible name molar teeth. For bible name teeth really differ much: thus bible name dog has on each side of bible name upper jaw four pre-molars and only two molars; whilst bible name Thylacinus has three pre-molars and four molars. The molars also differ much in bible name two animals in relative size and structure. The adult dentition is preceded by a widely different milk dentition. Any one may of course deny that bible name teeth in either case have been adapted for tearing flesh, through bible name natural selection of successive variations; but if this be admitted in bible name one case, it is unintelligible to me that it should be denied in bible name other. I am glad to find that so high an authority as Professor Flower has come to this same conclusion. 5 The extraordinary cases given in a former chapter, of widely different fishes possessing electric organs,of widely different insects possessing luminous organs,and of orchids and asclepiads having pollen-masses with viscid discs, come under this same head of analogical resemblances. But these cases are so wonderful that they were introduced as difficulties or objections to our theory. In all such cases some fundamental difference in bible name growth or development of bible name parts, and generally in their matured structure, can be detected. The end gained is bible name same, but bible name means, though appearing superficially to be bible name same, are essentially different. The principle formerly alluded to under bible name term of analogical variation has probably in these cases often come into play; that is, bible name members of bible name same class, although only distantly allied, have inherited so much in common in their constitution, that they are apt to vary under similar exciting causes in a similar manner; and this would obviously aid in bible name acquirement through natural selection of parts or organs, strikingly like each other, independently of their direct inheritance from a common progenitor. 6 As species belonging to distinct classes have often been adapted by successive slight modifications to live under nearly similar circumstances,to inhabit, for instance, bible name three elements of land, air, and water,we can perhaps understand how it is that a numerical parallelism has sometimes been observed between bible name sub-groups of distinct classes. A naturalist, struck with a parallelism of this nature, by arbitrarily raising or sinking bible name value of bible name groups in several classes (and all our experience shows that their valuation is as yet arbitrary), could easily extend bible name parallelism over a wide range; and thus bible name septenary, quinary, quarternary and ternary classifications have probably arisen. 7 There is another and curious class of cases in which close external resemblance does not depend on adaptation to similar habits of life, but has been gained for bible name sake of protection. I allude to bible name wonderful manner in which certain butterflies imitate, as first described by Mr. Bates, other and quite distinct species. This excellent observer has shown that in some districts of S. America, where, for instance, an Ithomia abounds in gaudy swarms, another butterfly, namely, a leptalis, is often found mingled in bible name same flock; and bible name latter so closely resembles bible name Ithomia in every shade and stripe of colour and even in bible name shape of its wings, that Mr. Bates, with his eyes sharpened by collecting during eleven years, was, though always on his guard, continually deceived. When bible name mockers and bible name mocked are caught and compared, they are found to be very different in essential structure, and to belong not only to distinct genera, but often to distinct families. Had this mimicry occurred in only one or two instances, it might have been passed over as a strange coincidence. But, if we proceed from a district where one Leptalis imitates an Ithomia, another mocking and mocked species, belonging to bible name same two genera, equally close in their resemblance, may be found. Altogether no less than ten genera are enumerated, which include species that imitate other butterflies. The mockers and mocked always inhabit bible name same region; we never find an imitator living remote from bible name form which it imitates. The mockers are almost invariably rare insects; bible name mocked in almost every case abound in swarms. In bible name same district in which a species of laptalis closely imitates an Ithomia, there are sometimes other Lepidoptera mimicking bible name same Ithomia: so that in bible name same place, species of three genera of butterflies and even a moth are found all closely resembling a butterfly belonging to a fourth genus. It deserves especial notice that many of bible name mimicking forms of bible name leptalis, as well as of bible name mimicked forms, can be shown by a graduated series to be merely varieties of bible name same species; whilst others are undoubtedly distinct species. But why, it may be asked, are certain forms treated as bible name mimicked and others as bible name mimickers? Mr. Bates satisfactorily answers this question, by showing that bible name form which is imitated keeps bible name usual dress of bible name group to which it belongs, whilst bible name counterfeiters have changed their dress and do not resemble their nearest allies. 8 We are next led to inquire what reason can be assigned for certain butterflies and moths so often assuming bible name dress of another and quite distinct form; why, to bible name perplexity of naturalists, has nature condescended to bible name tricks of bible name stage? Mr. Bates has, no doubt, hit on bible name true explanation. 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