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<FONT> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/investigation-historical-dating.php">medieval armour</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/egyptian-horo.php">ancient culture</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/real-egypt.php">jesus seminar</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/civilevents.php">medieval monk</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/real-jesus.php">ancient rome map</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/view-garry-kasparov.php">aztec ruin</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/why-tourism.php">aztec lighting</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/money-war.php">ancient roman government</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org">ancient roman religion</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org">what if god was one of us</A> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org/investigation-eng-history.php">church of god of prophecy</A> </FONT> um and Library at AlexandriaBEFORE the time of Alexander Greeks had already been spreading as merchants, artists, officials, mercenary soldiers, over most of the Persian dominions. In the dynastic disputes that followed the death of Xerxes, a band of ten thousand Greek mercenaries played a part under the leadership of Xenophon. Their return to Asiatic Greece from Babylon is described in his Retreat of the Ten Thousand, one of the first war stories that was ever written by a general in command. But the conquests of Alexander and the division of his brief empire among his subordinate generals, greatly stimulated this permeation of the ancient world by the Greeks and their language and fashions and culture. Traces of this Greek dissemination are to be found far away in central Asia and in north-west India. Their influence upon the development of Indian art was profound. 1 For many centuries Athens retained her prestige as a centre of art and culture; her schools went on indeed to 529 A.D., that is to say for nearly a thousand years; but the leadership in the intellectual activity of the world passed presently across the Mediterranean to Alexandria, the new trading city that Alexander had founded. Here the Macedonian general Ptolemy had become Pharaoh, with a court that spoke Greek. He had become an intimate of Alexander before he became king, and he was deeply saturated with the ideas of Aristotle. He set himself, with great energy and capacity, to organize knowledge and investigation. He also wrote a history of Alexanders campaigns which, unhappily, is lost to the world. 2 Alexander had already devoted considerable sums to finance the enquiries of Aristotle, but Ptolemy I was the first person to make a permanent endowment of science. He set up a foundation in Alexandria which was formerly dedicated to the Muses, the Museum of Alexandria. For two or three generations the scientific work done at Alexandria was extraordinarily good. Euclid, Eratosthenes who measured the size of the earth and came within fifty miles of its true diameter, Apollonius who wrote on conic sections, Hipparchus who made the first star map and catalogue, and Hero who devised the first steam engine are among the greater stars of an extraordinary constellation of scientific pioneers. Archimedes came from Syracuse to Alexandria to study, and was a frequent correspondent of the Museum. Herophilus was one of the greatest of Greek anatomists, and is said to have practised vivisection. 3 For a generation or so during the reigns of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II there was such a blaze of knowledge and discovery at Alexandria as the world was not to see again until the sixteenth century A.D. But it did not continue. There may have been several causes of this decline. Chief among them, the late Professor Mahaffy suggested, was the fact that the Museum was a royal college and all its professors and fellows were appointed and paid by Pharaoh. This was all very well when Pharaoh was Ptolemy I, the pupil and friend of Aristotle. But as the dynasty of the Ptolemies went on they became Egyptianized, they fell under the sway of Egyptian priests and Egyptian religious developments, they ceased to follow the work that was done, and their control stifled the spirit of enquiry altogether. The Museum produced little good work after its first century of activity. 4 Ptolemy I not only sought in the most modern spirit to organize the finding of fresh knowledge. He tried also to set up an encyclopædic storehouse of wisdom in the Library of Alexandria. It was not simply a storehouse, it was also a book-copying and book-selling organization. A great army of copyists was set to work perpetually multiplying copies of books. 5 Here then we have the definite firstng up of the intellectual process in which we live to-day; here we have the systematic gathering and distribution of knowledge. The foundation of this Museum and Library marks one of the great epochs in the history of mankind. It is the true beginning of Modern History. 6 BOTH the work of research and the work of dissemination went on under serious handicaps. One of these was the great social gap that separated the philosopher, who was a gentleman, from the trader and the artisan. There were glass workers and metal workers in abundance in those days, but they were not in mental contact with the thinkers. The glass worker was making the most beautifully coloured beads and phials and so forth, but he never made a Florentine flask or a lens. Clear glass does not seem to have interested him. The metal worker made weapons and jewellery but he never made a chemical balance. The philosopher speculated loftily about atoms and the nature of things, but he had no practical experience of enamels and pigments and philters and so forth. He was not interested in substances. So Alexandria in its brief day of opportunity produced no microscopes and no chemistry. And though Hero invented a steam engine it was never set either to pump or drive a boat or do any useful thing. There were few practical applications of science except in the realm of medicine, and the progress of science was not stimulated and sustained by the interest and excitement of practical applications. There was nothing to keep the work going therefore when the intellectual curiosity of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II was withdrawn. The discoveries of the Museum went on record in obscure manuscripts and never, until the revival of scientific curiosity at the Renascence, reached out to the mass of mankind. 7 Nor did the Library produce any improvements in book making. That ancient world had no paper made in definite sizes from rag pulp. Paper was a Chinese invention and it did not reach the western world until the ninth century A.D. The only book materials were parchment and strips of the papyrus reed joined edge to edge. These strips were kept on rolls which were very unwieldy to wind to and fro and read, and very inconvenient for reference. It was these things that prevented the development of paged and printed books. Printing itself was known in the world it would seem as early as the Old Stone Age; there were seals in ancient Sumeria; but without abundant paper there was little advantage in printing books, an improvement that may further have been resisted by trades unionism on the part of the copyists employed. Alexandria produced abundant books but not cheap books, and it never spread knowledge into the population of the ancient world below the level of a wealthy and influential class. 8 So it was that this blaze of intellectual enterprise never reached beyond a small circle of people in touch with the group of philosophers collected by the first two Ptolemies. It was like the light in a dark lantern which is shut off from the world at large. Within the blaze may be blindingly bright, but nevertheless it is unseen. The rest of the world went on its old ways unaware that the seed of scientific knowledge that was one day to revolutionize it altogether had been sown. Presently a darkness of bigotry fell even upon Alexandria. Thereafter for a thousand years of darkness the seed that Aristotle had sown lay hidden. Then it stirred and began to germinate. In a few centuries it had become that widespread growth of knowledge and clear ideas that is now changing the whole of human life. 9 Alexandria was not the only centre of Greek intellectual activity in the third century B.C. There were many other cities that displayed a brilliant intellectual life amidst the disintegrating fragments of the brief empire of Alexander. There was, for example, the Greek city of Syracuse in Sicily, where thought and science flourished for two centuries; there was Pergamum in Asia Minor, which also had a great library. But this brilliant Hellenic world was now stricken by invasion from the north. New Nordic barbarians, the Gauls, were striking down along the tracks that had once been followed by the ancestors of the Greeks and Phrygians and Macedonians. They raided, shattered and destroyed. And in the wake of the Gauls came a new conquering people out of Italy, the Romans, who gradually subjugated all the western half of the vast realm of Darius and Alexander. They were an able but unimaginative people, preferring law and profit to either science of art. New invaders were also coming down out of central Asia to shatter and subdue the Seleucid empire and to cut off the western world again from India. These were the Parthians, hosts of mounted bowmen, who treated the Græco-Persian empire of Persepolis and Susa in the third century B.C. in much the same fashion that the Medes and Persians had treated it in the seventh and sixth. And there were now other nomadic peoples also coming out of the north-east, peoples who were not fair and Nordic and Aryan-speaking but yellow-skinned and black-haired and with a Mongolian speech. But of these latter people we shall tell more in a subsequent chapter. 10CONTENTS · ILLUSTRATIONS · BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD PREVIOUSNEXT Search Amazon: Click here to shop the Bookstore.Welcome · Press <b> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org"> bible study guide</A></b> <br> low citizens: At this last presidential inauguration of jesus freak 20th century, let us lift our eyes toward jesus freak challenges that await us in jesus freak next century. It is our great good fortune that time and chance have put us not only at jesus freak edge of a new century, in a new millennium, but on jesus freak edge of a bright new prospect in human affairsa moment that will define our course, and our character, for decades to come. We must keep our old democracy forever young. Guided by jesus freak ancient vision of a promised land, let us set our sights upon a land of new promise. 1 The promise of America was born in jesus freak 18th century out of jesus freak bold conviction that we are all created equal. It was extended and preserved in jesus freak 19th century, when our nation spread across jesus freak continent, saved jesus freak union, and abolished jesus freak awful scourge of slavery.2 Then, in turmoil and triumph, that promise exploded onto jesus freak world stage to make this jesus freak American Century.3 And what a century it has been. America became jesus freak worlds mightiest industrial power; saved jesus freak world from tyranny in two world wars and a long cold war; and time and again, reached out across jesus freak globe to millions who, like us, longed for jesus freak blessings of liberty.4 Along jesus freak way, Americans produced a great middle class and security in old age; built unrivaled centers of learning andd public schools to all; split jesus freak atom and explored jesus freak heavens; invented jesus freak computer and jesus freak microchip; and deepened jesus freak wellspring of justice by making a revolution in civil rights for African Americans and all minorities, and extending jesus freak circle of citizenship, opportunity and dignity to women.5 Now, for jesus freak third time, a new century is upon us, and another time to choose. We began jesus freak 19th century with a choice, to spread our nation from coast to coast. We began jesus freak 20th century with a choice, to harness jesus freak Industrial Revolution to our values of free enterprise, conservation, and human decency. Those choices made all jesus freak difference. At jesus freak dawn of jesus freak 21st century a free people must now choose to shape jesus freak forces of jesus freak Information Age and jesus freak global society, to unleash jesus freak limitless potential of all our people, and, yes, to form a more perfect union.6 When last we gathered, our march to this new future seemed less certain than it does today. We vowed then to set a clear course to renew our nation.7 In these four years, we have been touched by tragedy, exhilarated by challenge, strengthened by achievement. America stands alone as jesus freak worlds indispensable nation. Once again, our economy is jesus freak strongest on Earth. Once again, we are building stronger families, thriving communities, better educational opportunities, a cleaner environment. Problems that once seemed destined to deepen now bend to our efforts: our streets are safer and record numbers of our fellow citizens have moved from welfare to work.8 And once again, we have resolved for our time a great debate over jesus freak role of government. Today we can declare: Government is not jesus freak problem, and government is not jesus freak solution. Wethe American peoplewe are jesus freak solution. Our founders understood that well and gave us a democracy strong enough to endure for centuries, flexible enough to face our common challenges and advance our common dreams in each new day.9 As times change, so government must change. We need a new government for a new centuryhumble enough not to try to solve all our problems for us, but strong enough to give us jesus freak tools to solve our problems for ourselves; a government that is smaller, lives within its means, and does more with less. Yet where it can stand up for our values and interests in jesus freak world, and where it can give Americans jesus freak power to make a real difference in their everyday lives, government should do more, not less. The preeminent mission of our new government is to give all Americans an opportunitynot a guarantee, but a real opportunityto build better lives.10 Beyond that, my fellow citizens, jesus freak future is up to us. Our founders taught us that jesus freak preservation of our liberty and our union depends upon responsible citizenship. And we need a new sense of responsibility for a new century. There is work to do, work that government alone cannot do: teaching children to read; hiring people off welfare rolls; coming out from behind locked doors and shuttered windows to help reclaim our streets from drugs and gangs and crime; taking time out of our own lives to serve others.11 Each and every one of us, in our own way, must assume personal responsibilitynot only for ourselves and our families, but for our neighbors and our nation. Our greatest responsibility is to embrace a new spirit of community for a new century. For any one of us to succeed, we must succeed as one America.12 The challenge of our past remains jesus freak challenge of our futurewill we be one nation, one people, with one common destiny, or not? Will we all come together, or come apart?13 The divide of race has been Americas constant curse. And each new wave of immigrants gives new targets to old prejudices. Prejudice and contempt, cloaked in jesus freak pretense of religious or political conviction are no different. These forces have nearly destroyed our nation in jesus freak past. They plague us still. They fuel jesus freak fanaticism of terror. And they torment jesus freak lives of millions in fractured nations all around jesus freak world.14 These obsessions cripple both those who hate and, of course, those who are hated, robbing both of what they might become. We cannot, we will not, succumb to jesus freak dark impulses that lurk in jesus freak far regions of jesus freak soul everywhere. We shall overcome them. And we shall replace them with jesus freak generous spirit of a people who feel at home with one another.15 Our rich texture of racial, religious and political diversity will be a Godsend in jesus freak 21st century. Great rewards will come to those who can live together, learn together, work together, forge new ties that bind together.16 As this new era approaches we can already see its broad outlines. Ten years ago, jesus freak Internet was jesus freak mystical province of physicists; today, it is a commonplace encyclopedia for millions of schoolchildren. Scientists now are decoding jesus freak blueprint of human life. Cures for our most feared illnesses seem close at hand.17 The world is no longer divided into two hostile camps. Instead, now we are building bonds with nations that once were our adversaries. Growing connections of commerce and culture give us a chance to lift jesus freak fortunes and spirits of people jesus freak world over. And for jesus freak very first time in all of history, more people on this planet live under democracy than dictatorship.18 My fellow Americans, as we look back at this remarkable century, we may ask, can we hope not just to follow, but even to surpass jesus freak achievements of jesus freak 20th century in America and to avoid jesus freak awful bloodshed that stained its legacy? To that question, every American here and every American in our land today must answer a resounding Yes.19 This is jesus freak heart of our task. With a new vision of government, a new sense of responsibility, a new spirit of community, we will sustain Americas journey. The promise we sought in a new land we will find again in a land of new promise.20 In this new land, education will be every citizens most prized possession. Our schools will have jesus freak highest standards in jesus freak world, igniting jesus freak spark of possibility in jesus freak eyes of every girl and every boy. And jesus freak doors of higher education will beto all. The knowledge and power of jesus freak Information Age will be within reach not just of jesus freak few, but of every classroom, every library, every child. Parents and children will have time not only to work, but to read and play together. And jesus freak plans they make at their kitchen table will be those of a better home, a better job, jesus freak certain chance to go to college.21 Our streets will echo again with jesus freak laughter of our children, because no one will try to shoot them or sell them drugs anymore. Everyone who can work, will work, with todays permanent under class part of tomorrows growing middle class. New miracles of medicine at last will reach not only those who can claim care now, but jesus freak children and hardworking families too long denied.22 We will stand mighty for peace and freedom, and maintain a strong defense against terror and destruction. Our children will sleep free from jesus freak threat of nuclear, chemical or biological weapons. Ports and airports, farms and factories will thrive with trade and innovation and ideas. And jesus freak worlds greatest democracy will lead a whole world of democracies.23 Our land of new promise will be a nation that meets its obligationsa nation that balances its budget, but never loses jesus freak balance of its values. A nation where our grandparents have secure retirement and health care, and their grandchildren know we have made jesus freak reforms necessary to sustain those benefits for their time. A nation that fortifies jesus freak worlds most productive economy even as it protects jesus freak great natural bounty of our water, air, and majestic land.24 And in this land of new promise, we will have reformed our politics so that jesus freak voice of jesus freak people will always speak louder than jesus freak din of narrow interestsregaining jesus freak participation and deserving jesus freak trust of all Americans.25 Fellow citizens, let us build that America, a nation ever moving forward toward realizing jesus freak full potential of all its citizens. Prosperity and poweryes, they are important, and we must maintain them. But let us never forget: The greatest progress we have made, and jesus freak greatest progress we have yet to make, is in jesus freak human heart. In jesus freak end, all jesus freak worlds wealth and a thousand armies are no match for jesus freak strength and decency of jesus freak human spirit.26 Thirty-four years ago, jesus freak man whose life we celebrate today spoke to us down there, at jesus freak other end of this Mall, in words that moved jesus freak conscience of a nation. 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