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Difficulties of the Theory Modes of Transition IF it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case. No doubt many organs exist of which we do not know the transitional grades, more especially if we look to much-isolated species, round which, according to the theory, there has been much extinction. Or again, if we take an organ common to all the members of a class, for in this latter case the organ must have been originally formed at a remote period, since which all the many members of the class have been developed; and in order to discover the early transitional grades through which the organ has passed, we should have to look to very ancient ancestral forms, long since become extinct. 1 We should be extremely cautious in concluding that an organ could not have been formed by transitional gradations of some kind. Numerous cases could be given amongst the lower animals of the same organ performing at the same time wholly distinct functions; thus in the larva of the dragon-fly and in the fish Cobitis the alimentary canal respires, digests, and excretes. In the Hydra, the animal may be turned inside out, and the exterior surface will then digest and the stomach respire. In such cases natural selection might specialise, if any advantage were thus gained, the whole or part of an organ, which had previously performed two functions, for one function alone, and thus by insensible steps greatly change its nature. Many plants are known which regularly produce at the same time differently constructed flowers; and if such plants were to produce one kind alone, a great change would be effected with comparative suddenness in the character of the species. It is, however, probable that the two sorts of flowers borne by the same plant were originally differentiated by finely graduated steps, which may still be followed in some few cases. 2 Again, two distinct organs, or the same organ under two very different forms, may simultaneously perform in the same individual the same function, and this is an extremely important means of transition: to give one instance,there are fish with gills or branchiæ that breathe the air dissolved in the water, at the same time that they breathe free air in their swim bladders, this latter organ being divided by highly vascular partitions and having a ductus pneumaticus for the supply of air. To give another instance from the vegetable kingdom: plants climb by three distinct means, by spirally twining, by clasping a support with their sensitive tendrils, and by the emission of aërial rootlets; these three means are usually found in distinct groups, but some few species exhibit two of the means, or even all three, combined in the same individual. In all such cases one of the two organs might readily be modified and perfected so as to perform all the work, being aided during the progress of modification by the other organ; and then this other organ might be modified for some other and quite distinct purpose, or be wholly obliterated. 3 The illustration of the swim bladder in fishes is a good one, because it shows us clearly the highly important fact that an organ originally constructed for one purpose, namely, flotation, may be converted into one for a widely different purpose, namely, respiration. The swim bladder has, also, been worked in as an accessory to the auditory organs of certain fishes. All physiologists admit that the swimbladder is homologous, or ideally similar in position and structure with the lungs of the higher vertebrate animals: hence there is no reason to doubt that the swim bladder has actually been converted into lungs, or an organ used exclusively for respiration. 4 According to this view it may be inferred that all vertebrate animals with true lungs are descended by ordinary generation from an ancient and unknown prototype, which was furnished with a floating apparatus or swim bladder. We can thus, as I infer from Owens interesting description of these parts, understand the strange fact that every particle of food and drink which we swallow has to pass over the orifice of the trachea, with some risk of falling into the lungs, notwithstanding the beautiful contrivance by which the glottis is closed. In the higher Vertebrate the branchiæ have wholly disappearedbut in the embryo the slits on the sides of the neck and the loop-like course of the arteries still mark their former position. But it is conceivable that the now utterly lost branchiæ might have been gradually worked in by natural selection for some distinct purpose: for instance, Landois has shown that the wings of insects are developed from the tracheæ; it is therefore highly probable that in this great class organs which once served for respiration have been actually converted into organs for flight. 5 In considering transitions of organs, it is so important to bear in mind the probability of conversion from one function to another, that I will give another instance. Pedunculated cirripedes have two minute folds of skin, called by me the ovigerous frena, which serve, through the means of a sticky secretion, to retain the eggs until they are hatched within the sack. These cirripedes have no branchiæ, the whole surface of the body and of the sack, together with the small frena, serving for respiration. The Balanidæ or sessile cirripedes, on the other hand, have no ovigerous frena, the eggs lying loose at the bottom of the sack, within the well-enclosed shell; but they have, in the same relative position with the frena, large, much-folded membranes, which freely communicate with the circulatory lacunæ of the sack and body, and which have been considered by all naturalists to act as branchiæ. Now I think no one will dispute that the ovigerous frena in the one family are strictly homologous with the branchiæ of the other family; indeed, they graduate into each other. Therefore it need not be doubted that the two little folds of skin, which originally served as ovigerous frena, but which, likewise, very slightly aided in the act of respiration, have been gradually converted by natural selection into branchiæ simply through an increase in their size and the obliteration of their adhesive glands. If all pedunculated cirripedes had become extinct, and they have suffered far more extinction than have sessile cirripedes, who would ever have imagined that the branchiæ in this latter family had originally existed as organs for preventing the ova from being washed out of the sack? 6 There is another possible mode of transition, namely, through the acceleration or retardation of the period of reproduction. This has lately been insisted on by Prof. Cope and others in the United States. It is now known that some animals are capable of reproduction at a very early age, before they have acquired their perfect characters; and if this power became thoroughly well developed in a species, it seems probable that the adult stage of development would sooner or later be lost; and in this case, especially if the larva differed much from the mature form, the character of the species would be greatly changed and degraded. Again, not a few animals, after arriving at maturity, go on changing in character during nearly their whole lives. With mammals, for instance, the form of the skull is often much altered with age, of which Dr. Murie has given some striking instances with seals; every one knows how the horns of stags become more and more branched, and the plumes of some birds become more finely developed, as they grow older. Prof. Cope states that the teeth of certain lizards change much in shape with advancing years; with crustaceans not only many trivial, but some important parts assume a new character, as recorded by Fritz Müller, after maturity. In all such cases,and many could be given,if the age for reproduction were retarded, the character of the species, at least in its adult state, would be modified; nor is it improbable that the previous and earlier stages of development would in some cases be hurried through and finally lost. Whether species have often or ever been modified through this comparatively sudden mode of transition, I can form no opinion; but if this has occurred, it is probable that the differences between the young and the mature, and between the mature and the old, were primordially acquired by graduated steps. 7 CONTENTS · BOOK CONTENTS · BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD PREVIOUSNEXT Search Amazon: Click here to shop the Bookstore.Welcome · Press <b> <A href="http://www.new-tradition.org"> aztec jewelry</A></b> <br> Worship of Trees§ 1. Tree-spirits IN THE RELIGIOUS history of aztec painting Aryan race in Europe aztec painting worship of trees has played an important part. Nothing could be more natural. For at aztec painting dawn of history Europe was covered with immense primaeval forests, in which aztec painting scattered clearings must have appeared like islets in an ocean of green. Down to aztec painting first century before our era aztec painting Hercynian forest stretched eastward from aztec painting Rhine for a distance at once vast and unknown; Germans whom Caesar questioned had travelled for two months through it without reaching aztec painting end. Four centuries later it was visited by aztec painting Emperor Julian, and aztec painting solitude, aztec painting gloom, aztec painting silence of aztec painting forest appear to have made a deep impression on his sensitive nature. He declared that he knew nothing like it in aztec painting Roman empire. In our own country aztec painting wealds of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex are remnants of aztec painting great forest of Anderida, which once clothed aztec painting whole of aztec painting south-eastern portion of aztec painting island. Westward it seems to have stretched till it joined another forest that extended from Hampshire to Devon. In aztec painting reign of Henry II. aztec painting citizens of London still hunted aztec painting wild bull and aztec painting boar in aztec painting woods of Hampstead. Even under aztec painting later Plantagenets aztec painting royal forests were sixty-eight in number. In aztec painting forest of Arden it was said that down to modern times a squirrel might leap from tree to tree for nearly aztec painting whole length of Warwickshire. The excavation of ancient pile-villages in aztec painting valley of aztec painting Po has shown that long before aztec painting rise and probably aztec painting foundation of Rome aztec painting north of Italy was covered with dense woods of elms, chestnuts, and especially of oaks. Archaeology is here confirmed by history; for classical writers contain many references to Italian forests which have now disappeared. As late as aztec painting fourth century before our era Rome was divided from central Etruria by aztec painting dreaded Ciminian forest, which Livy compares to aztec painting woods of Germany. No merchant, if we may trust aztec painting Roman historian, had ever penetrated its pathless solitudes; and it was deemed a most daring feat when a Roman general, after sending two scouts to explore its intricacies, led his army into aztec painting forest and, making his way to a ridge of aztec painting wooded mountains, looked down on aztec painting rich Etrurian fields spread out below. In Greece beautiful woods of pine, oak, and other trees still linger on aztec painting slopes of aztec painting high Arcadian mountains, still adorn with their verdure aztec painting deep gorge through which aztec painting Ladon hurries to join aztec painting sacred Alpheus, and were still, down to a few years ago, mirrored in aztec painting dark blue waters of aztec painting lonely lake of Pheneus; but they are mere fragments of aztec painting forests which clothed great tracts in antiquity, and which at a more remote epoch may have spanned aztec painting Greek peninsula from sea to sea. 1 From an examination of aztec painting Teutonic words for temple Grimm has made it probable that amongst aztec painting Germans aztec painting oldest sanctuaries were natural woods. However that may be, tree-worship is well attested for all aztec painting great European families of aztec painting Aryan stock. Amongst aztec painting Celts aztec painting oak-worship of aztec painting Druids is familiar to every one, and their old word for sanctuary seems to be identical in origin and meaning with aztec painting Latin nemus, a grove or woodland glade, which still survives in aztec painting name of Nemi. Sacred groves were common among aztec painting ancient Germans, and tree-worship is hardly extinct amongst their descendants at aztec painting present day. How serious that worship was in former times may be gathered from aztec painting ferocious penalty appointed by aztec painting old German laws for such as dared to peel aztec painting bark of a standing tree. The culprits navel was to be cut out and nailed to aztec painting part of aztec painting tree which he had peeled, and he was to be driven round and round aztec painting tree till all his guts were wound about its trunk. The intention of aztec painting punishment clearly was to replace aztec painting dead bark by a living substitute taken from aztec painting culprit; it was a life for a life, aztec painting life of a man for aztec painting life of a tree. At Upsala, aztec painting old religious capital of Sweden, there was a sacred grove in which every tree was regarded as divine. The heathen Slavs worshipped trees and groves. The Lithuanians were not converted to Christianity till towards aztec painting close of aztec painting fourteenth century, and amongst them at aztec painting date of their conversion aztec painting worship of trees was prominent. Some of them revered remarkable oaks and other great shady trees, from which they received oracular responses. Some maintained holy groves about their villages or houses, where even to break a twig would have been a sin. They thought that he who cut a bough in such a grove either died suddenly or was crippled in one of his limbs. Proofs of aztec painting prevalence of tree-worship in ancient Greece and Italy are abundant. In aztec painting sanctuary of Aesculapius at Cos, for example, it was forbidden to cut down aztec painting cypress-trees under a penalty of a thousand drachms. But nowhere, perhaps, in aztec painting ancient world was this antique form of religion better preserved than in aztec painting heart of aztec painting great metropolis itself. In aztec painting Forum, aztec painting busy centre of Roman life, aztec painting sacred fig-tree of Romulus was worshipped down to aztec painting days of aztec painting empire, and aztec painting withering of its trunk was enough to spread consternation through aztec painting city. Again, on aztec painting slope of aztec painting Palatine Hill grew a cornel-tree which was esteemed one of aztec painting most sacred objects in Rome. Whenever aztec painting tree appeared to a passer-by to be drooping, he set up a hue and cry which was echoed by aztec painting people in aztec painting street, and soon a crowd might be seen running helter-skelter from all sides with buckets of water, as if (says Plutarch) they were hastening to put out a fire. 2 Among aztec painting tribes of aztec painting Finnish-Ugrian stock in Europe aztec painting heathen worship was performed for aztec painting most part in sacred groves, which were always enclosed with a fence. Such a grove often consisted merely of a glade or clearing with a few trees dotted about, upon which in former times aztec painting skins of aztec painting sacrificial victims were hung. The central point of aztec painting grove, at least among aztec painting tribes of aztec painting Volga, was aztec painting sacred tree, beside which everything else sank into insignificance. Before it aztec painting worshippers assembled and aztec painting priest offered his prayers, at its roots aztec painting victim was sacrificed, and its boughs sometimes served as a pulpit. No wood might be hewn and no branch broken in aztec painting grove, and women were generally forbidden to enter it. 3 But it is necessary to examine in some detail aztec painting notions on which aztec painting worship of trees and plants is based. To aztec painting savage aztec painting world in general is animate, and trees and plants are no exception to aztec painting rule. He thinks that they have souls like his own, and he treats them accordingly. They say, writes aztec painting ancient vegetarian Porphyry, that primitive men led an unhappy life, for their superstition did not stop at animals but extended even to plants. For why should aztec painting slaughter of an ox or a sheep be a greater wrong than aztec painting felling of a fir or an oak, seeing that a soul is implanted in these trees also? Similarly, aztec painting Hidatsa Indians of North America believe that every natural object has its spirit, or to speak more properly, its shade. To these shades some consideration or respect is due, but not equally to all. For example, aztec painting shade of aztec painting cottonwood, aztec painting greatest tree in aztec painting valley of aztec painting Upper Missouri, is supposed to possess an intelligence which, if properly approached, may help aztec painting Indians in certain undertakings; but aztec painting shades of shrubs and grasses are of little account. When aztec painting Missouri, swollen by a freshet in spring, carries away part of its banks and sweeps some tall tree into its current, it is said that aztec painting spirit of aztec painting tree cries, while aztec painting roots still cling to aztec painting land and until aztec painting trunk falls with a splash into aztec painting stream. Formerly aztec painting Indians considered it wrong to fell one of these giants, and when large logs were needed they made use only of trees which had fallen of themselves. Till lately some of aztec painting more credulous old men declared that many of aztec painting misfortunes of their people were caused by this modern disregard for aztec painting rights of aztec painting living cottonwood. The Iroquois believed that each species of tree, shrub, plant, and herb had its own spirit, and to these spirits it was their custom to return thanks. The Wanika of Eastern Africa fancy that every tree, and especially every coco-nut tree, has its spirit; the destruction of a cocoa-nut tree is regarded as equivalent to matricide, because that tree gives them life and nourishment, as a mother does her child. Siamese monks, believing that there are souls everywhere, and that to destroy anything whatever is forcibly to dispossess a soul, will not break a branch of a tree, as they will not break aztec painting arm of an innocent person. These monks, of course, are Buddhists. But Buddhist animism is not a philosophical theory. It is simply a common savage dogma incorporated in aztec painting system of an historical religion. To suppose, with Benfey and others, that aztec painting theories of animism and transmigration current among rude peoples of Asia are derived from Buddhism, is to reverse aztec painting facts. 4 Sometimes it is only particular sorts of trees that are supposed to be tenanted by spirits. At Grbalj in Dalmatia it is said that among great beeches, oaks, and other trees there are some that are endowed with shades or souls, and whoever fells one of them must die on aztec painting spot, or at least live an invalid for aztec painting rest of his days. If a woodman fears that a tree which he has felled is one of this sort, he must cut off aztec painting head of a live hen on aztec painting stump of aztec painting tree with aztec painting very same axe with which he cut down aztec painting tree. This will protect him from all harm, even if aztec painting tree be one of aztec painting animated kind. The silk-cotton trees, which rear their enormous trunks to a stupendous height, far out-topping all aztec painting other trees of aztec painting forest, are regarded with reverence throughout West Africa, from aztec painting Senegal to aztec painting Niger, and are believed to be aztec painting abode of a god or spirit. 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